@article{dezman2023,

title = {A mechatronic leg replica to benchmark human\textendashexoskeleton physical interactions},

author = {Miha De\v{z}man and Stefano Massardi and David Pinto-Fernandez and Victor Grosu and Carlos Rodriguez-Guerrero and Jan Babi\v{c} and Diego Torricelli},

doi = {10.1088/1748-3190/accda8},

issn = {1748-3182},

year  = {2023},

date = {2023-01-01},

urldate = {2023-01-01},

journal = {Bioinspiration \& Biomimetics},

volume = {18},

issue = {3},

pages = {036009},

abstract = {Evaluating human\textendashexoskeleton interaction typically requires experiments with human subjects, which raises safety issues and entails time-consuming testing procedures. This paper presents a mechatronic replica of a human leg, which was designed to quantify physical interaction dynamics between exoskeletons and human limbs without the need for human testing. In the first part of this work, we present the mechanical, electronic, sensory system and software solutions integrated in our leg replica prototype. In the second part, we used the leg replica to test its interaction with two types of commercially available wearable devices, i.e. an active full leg exoskeleton and a passive knee orthosis. We ran basic test examples to demonstrate the functioning and benchmarking potential of the leg replica to assess the effects of joint misalignments on force transmission. The integrated force sensors embedded in the leg replica detected higher interaction forces in the misaligned scenario in comparison to the aligned one, in both active and passive modalities. The small standard deviation of force measurements across cycles demonstrates the potential of the leg replica as a standard test method for reproducible studies of human-exoskeleton physical interaction.},

keywords = {Exoskeleton Design and Control, Neuromusculoskeletal Modelling, Physical Human Robot Interaction, Robot Design},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Massardi2023,

title = {Relevance of hazards in exoskeleton applications: a survey-based enquiry},

author = {Stefano Massardi and David Pinto-Fernandez and Jan Babi\v{c} and Miha De\v{z}man and Andrej Tro\v{s}t and Victor Grosu and Dirk Lefeber and Carlos Rodriguez and Jule Bessler and Leendert Schaake and Gerdienke Prange-Lasonder and Jan F. Veneman and Diego Torricelli},

doi = {10.1186/s12984-023-01191-y},

issn = {1743-0003},

year  = {2023},

date = {2023-01-01},

urldate = {2023-01-01},

journal = {Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation},

volume = {20},

issue = {1},

pages = {68},

abstract = {Exoskeletons are becoming the reference technology for assistance and augmentation of human motor functions in a wide range of application domains. Unfortunately, the exponential growth of this sector has not been accompanied by a rigorous risk assessment (RA) process, which is necessary to identify the major aspects concerning the safety and impact of this new technology on humans. This situation may seriously hamper the market uptake of new products. This paper presents the results of a survey that was circulated to understand how hazards are considered by exoskeleton users, from research and industry perspectives. Our analysis aimed to identify the perceived occurrence and the impact of a sample of generic hazards, as well as to collect suggestions and general opinions from the respondents that can serve as a reference for more targeted RA. Our results identified a list of relevant hazards for exoskeletons. Among them, misalignments and unintended device motion were perceived as key aspects for exoskeletons’ safety. This survey aims to represent a first attempt in recording overall feedback from the community and contribute to future RAs and the identification of better mitigation strategies in the field.},

keywords = {Ergonomy, Exoskeleton Design and Control, Human Performance Augmentation},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Diaz2023b,

title = {Human-in-the-Loop Optimization of Wearable Robotic Devices to Improve Human\textendashRobot Interaction: A Systematic Review},

author = {Mar\'{i}a Alejandra D\'{i}az and Matthias Vo\ss and Arnau Dillen and Bruno Tassignon and Louis Flynn and Joost Geeroms and Romain Meeusen and Tom Verstraten and Jan Babi\v{c} and Philipp Beckerle and Kevin De Pauw},

url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9994612/},

doi = {10.1109/TCYB.2022.3224895},

issn = {2168-2267},

year  = {2023},

date = {2023-01-01},

urldate = {2023-01-01},

journal = {IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics},

volume = {53},

issue = {12},

pages = {7483-7496},

abstract = {This article presents a systematic review on wear- able robotic devices that use human-in-the-loop optimization (HILO) strategies to improve human\textendashrobot interaction. A total of 46 HILO studies were identified and divided into upper and lower limb robotic devices. The main aspects from HILO were iden- tified, reviewed, and classified in four areas: 1) human\textendashmachine systems; 2) optimization methods; 3) control strategies; and 4) experimental protocols. A variety of objective functions (phys- iological, biomechanical, and subjective), optimization strategies, and optimized control parameters configurations used in differ- ent control strategies are presented and analyzed. An overview of experimental protocols is provided, including metrics, tasks, and conditions tested. Moreover, the relevance given to train- ing or adaptation periods was explored. We outline an HILO framework that includes current wearable robots, optimization strategies, objective functions, control strategies, and experimen- tal protocols. We conclude by highlighting current research gaps and defining future directions to improve the development of advanced HILO strategies in upper and lower limb wearable robots.},

keywords = {Exoskeleton Design and Control, Human Performance Augmentation, Human-in-the-Loop Control, Physical Human Robot Interaction},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Latella2022,

title = {Analysis of Human Whole-Body Joint Torques During Overhead Work With a Passive Exoskeleton},

author = {Claudia Latella and Yeshasvi Tirupachuri and Luca Tagliapietra and Lorenzo Rapetti and Benjamin Schirrmeister and Jonas Bornmann and Dasa Gorjan and Jernej \v{C}amernik and Pauline Maurice and Lars Fritzsche and Jose Gonzalez-Vargas and Serena Ivaldi and Jan Babi\v{c} and Francesco Nori and Daniele Pucci},

url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9647004/},

doi = {10.1109/THMS.2021.3128892},

issn = {2168-2291},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-10-01},

urldate = {2022-10-01},

journal = {IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems},

volume = {52},

number = {5},

pages = {1060--1068},

publisher = {IEEE},

abstract = {Overheadwork is classifiedas one of the major risk factors for the onset of shoulder work-related musculoskeletal disorders and muscle fatigue. Upper-limb exoskeletons can be used to assist workers during the execution of industrial overhead tasks to prevent such disorders. Twelve novice participants have been equipped with inertial and force/torque sensors to simultaneously estimate the whole-body kinematics and the joint torques (i.e., internal articular stress) by means of a probabilistic estimator, while performing an overhead task with a pointing tool. An evaluation has been performed to analyze the effect at the whole-body level by considering the conditions of wearing and not-wearing PAEXO, a passive exoskeleton for upper-limb support during overhead work. Results point out that PAEXO provides a reduction of the whole-body joint effort across the experimental task blocks (from 66% to 86%). Moreover, the analysis along with five different body areas shows that 1) the exoskeleton provides support at the human shoulders by reducing the joint effort at the targeted limbs, and 2) that part of the internal wrenches is intuitively transferred from the upper body to the thighs and legs, which is shown with an increment of the torques at the legs joints. The promising outcomes show that the probabilistic estimation algorithm can be used as a validation metric to quantitatively assess PAEXO performances, paving thus the way for the next challenging milestone, such as the optimization of the human joint torques via adaptive exoskeleton control.},

keywords = {Ergonomy, Exoskeleton Design and Control, Human Performance Augmentation, Physical Human Robot Interaction},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Babic2021,

title = {Challenges and solutions for application and wider adoption of wearable robots},

author = {Jan Babi\v{c} and Matteo Laffranchi and Federico Tessari and Tom Verstraten and Domen Novak and Nejc \v{S}arabon and Barkan Ugurlu and Luka Peternel and Diego Torricelli and Jan F. Veneman},

url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S263171762100013X/type/journal_article},

doi = {10.1017/wtc.2021.13},

issn = {2631-7176},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-11-01},

urldate = {2021-11-01},

journal = {Wearable Technologies},

volume = {2},

pages = {e14},

abstract = {The science and technology of wearable robots are steadily advancing, and the use of such robots in our everyday life appears to be within reach. Nevertheless, widespread adoption of wearable robots should not be taken for granted, especially since many recent attempts to bring them to real-life applications resulted in mixed outcomes. The aim of this article is to address the current challenges that are limiting the application and wider adoption of wearable robots that are typically worn over the human body. We categorized the challenges into mechanical layout, actuation, sensing, body interface, control, human\textendashrobot interfacing and coadaptation, and benchmarking. For each category, we discuss specific challenges and the rationale for why solving them is important, followed by an overview of relevant recent works. We conclude with an opinion that summarizes possible solutions that could contribute to the wider adoption of wearable robots.},

keywords = {Exoskeleton Design and Control, Human Performance Augmentation},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Kunavar2021,

title = {Effects of Local Gravity Compensation on Motor Control During Altered Environmental Gravity},

author = {Tja\v{s}a Kunavar and Marko Jam\v{s}ek and Marie Barbiero and Gunnar Blohm and Daichi Nozaki and Charalambos Papaxanthis and Olivier White and Jan Babi\v{c}},

url = {https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncir.2021.750267/full},

doi = {10.3389/fncir.2021.750267},

issn = {1662-5110},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-10-01},

urldate = {2021-10-01},

journal = {Frontiers in Neural Circuits},

volume = {15},

abstract = {Our sensorimotor control is well adapted to normogravity environment encountered on Earth and any change in gravity significantly disturbs our movement. In order to produce appropriate motor commands for aimed arm movements such as pointing or reaching, environmental changes have to be taken into account. This adaptation is crucial when performing successful movements during microgravity and hypergravity conditions. To mitigate the effects of changing gravitational levels, such as the changed movement duration and decreased accuracy, we explored the possible beneficial effects of gravity compensation on movement. Local gravity compensation was achieved using a motorized robotic device capable of applying precise forces to the subject's wrist that generated a normogravity equivalent torque at the shoulder joint during periods of microgravity and hypergravity. The efficiency of the local gravity compensation was assessed with an experiment in which participants performed a series of pointing movements toward the target on a screen during a parabolic flight. We compared movement duration, accuracy, movement trajectory, and muscle activations of movements during periods of microgravity and hypergravity with conditions when local gravity compensation was provided. The use of local gravity compensation at the arm mitigated the changes in movement duration, accuracy, and muscle activity. Our results suggest that the use of such an assistive device helps with movements during unfamiliar environmental gravity.},

keywords = {Exoskeleton Design and Control, Human Motor Control, Human Performance Augmentation, Sensorimotor Learning},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Jamsek2021,

title = {Predictive Exoskeleton Control for Arm-Motion Augmentation Based on Probabilistic Movement Primitives Combined With a Flow Controller},

author = {Marko Jam\v{s}ek and Tja\v{s}a Kunavar and Urban Bobek and Elmar Rueckert and Jan Babi\v{c}},

url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9387088/},

doi = {10.1109/LRA.2021.3068892},

issn = {2377-3766},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-07-01},

urldate = {2021-07-01},

journal = {IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters},

volume = {6},

number = {3},

pages = {4417--4424},

abstract = {There are many work-related repetitive tasks where the application of exoskeletons could significantly reduce the physical effort by assisting the user in moving the arms towards the desired location in space. To make such controlmore user acceptable, the controller should be able to predict the motion of the user and act accordingly. This letter presents an exoskeleton control method that utilizes probabilistic movement primitives to generate predictions of user movements in real-time. These predictions are used in a flow controller, which represents a novel velocity-field-based exoskeleton control approach to provide assistance to the user in a predictive way. We evaluated our approach with a haptic robot, where a group of twelve participants had to perform movements towards different target locations in the frontal plane. We tested whether we could generalize the predictions for new and unknown target locations whilst providing assistance to the user without changing their kinematic parameters. The evaluation showed that we could accurately predict user movement intentions while at the same time significantly decrease the overall physical effort exerted by the participants to achieve the task.},

keywords = {Exoskeleton Design and Control, Force Control, Human Performance Augmentation, Optimal Control, Physical Human Robot Interaction},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Kozinc2021,

title = {Human pressure tolerance and effects of different padding materials with implications for development of exoskeletons and similar devices},

author = {\v{Z}iga Kozinc and Jan Babi\v{c} and Nejc \v{S}arabon},

doi = {10.1016/j.apergo.2021.103379},

issn = {18729126},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

urldate = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Applied Ergonomics},

volume = {93},

abstract = {In this study, we assessed pressure tolerance in 16 healthy participants at the thigh, chest, and pelvic area, using different surfaces (1 cm2, 20 cm2 and different components, used in exoskeleton design), and the effects of different padding materials. Our results showed substantial variability in pressure tolerance among the participants, as well as lower pressure tolerance in females. Regarding the force applied with the exoskeleton components, male participants had higher discomfort threshold (230.3 ± 44.9 N compared to females (116.1 ± 24.6 N) in the chest area. For the applications with 20 cm2 surface, the males also showed higher pain threshold at the thigh (89.3 ± 41.8 N vs. 34.6 ± 27.2 N) and the pelvis (97.6 ± 37.0 N vs. 56.1 ± 29.5 N). All padding materials increased pressure tolerance for 10\textendash38% (p \< 0.001), but little differences between materials were observed.},

keywords = {Ergonomy, Exoskeleton Design and Control, Physical Human Robot Interaction},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Kozinc2021a,

title = {Comparison of subjective responses of low back pain patients and asymptomatic controls to use of spinal exoskeleton during simple load lifting tasks: A pilot study},

author = {\v{Z}iga Kozinc and Jan Babi\v{c} and Nejc \v{S}arabon},

doi = {10.3390/ijerph18010161},

issn = {16604601},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

urldate = {2021-01-01},

journal = {International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health},

volume = {18},

number = {1},

pages = {1--9},

abstract = {Spinal exoskeletons have been suggested as an approach for the prevention and rehabilitation of occupational low back pain (LBP). While the state-of-the-art exoskeletons were shown to substantially unload the back, user acceptance is still limited. Perceived discomfort and restriction of freedom of movement are commonly reported. In this pilot study, we explored the differences in subjective responses and user impressions to using passive spinal exoskeleton during a set of simple lifting tasks between LBP patients (n = 12) and asymptomatic individuals (n = 10). Visual analog scales (0\textendash10) were used for all assessments. Overall, the results showed mostly similar responses or slightly more positive responses to the exoskeleton from LBP patients. Most notably, the LBP patients reported a statistically significant (p = 0.048) higher willingness to use the device daily (5.36 ± 4.05) compared to the control group (2.00 ± 1.85) and also gave the device a higher overall grade (6.58 ± 1.98 vs. 4.30 ± 2.26; p = 0.021). This study has demonstrated that individuals with current LBP responded more favorably to the use of the spinal exoskeleton for simple lifting tasks. This implies that current exoskeletons could be appropriate for LBP rehabilitation, but not preventions, as pain-free individuals are less willing to use such devices. Future studies should explore whether different exoskeleton designs could be more appropriate for people with no LBP issues.},

keywords = {Ergonomy, Exoskeleton Design and Control, Human Performance Augmentation, Neuromusculoskeletal Modelling},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Fritzsche2021,

title = {Assessing the efficiency of exoskeletons in physical strain reduction by biomechanical simulation with AnyBody Modeling System},

author = {Lars Fritzsche and Pavel E. Galibarov and Christian Gartner and Jonas Bornmann and Michael Damsgaard and Rudolf Wall and Benjamin Schirrmeister and Jose Gonzalez-Vargas and Daniele Pucci and Pauline Maurice and Serena Ivaldi and Jan Babi\v{c}},

doi = {10.1017/wtc.2021.5},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

urldate = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Wearable Technologies},

volume = {2},

abstract = {IntroductionRecently, many industrial exoskeletons for supporting workers in heavy physical tasks have been developed. However, the efficiency of exoskeletons with regard to physical strain reduction has not been fully proved, yet. Several laboratory and field studies have been conducted, but still more data, that cannot be obtained solely by behavioral experiments, are needed to investigate effects on the human body.MethodsThis paper presents an approach to extend laboratory and field research with biomechanical simulations using the AnyBody Modeling System. Based on a dataset recorded in a laboratory experiment with 12 participants using the exoskeleton Paexo Shoulder in an overhead task, the same situation was reproduced in a virtual environment and analyzed with biomechanical simulation.ResultsSimulation results indicate that the exoskeleton substantially reduces muscle activity and joint reaction forces in relevant body areas. Deltoid muscle activity and glenohumeral joint forces in the shoulder were decreased between 54 and 87%. Simultanously, no increases of muscle activity and forces in other body areas were observed.DiscussionThis study demonstrates how a simulation framework could be used to evaluate changes in internal body loads as a result of wearing exoskeletons. Biomechanical simulation results widely agree with experimental measurements in the previous laboratory experiment and supplement such by providing an insight into effects on the human musculoskeletal system. They confirm that Paexo Shoulder is an effective device to reduce physical strain in overhead tasks. The framework can be extended with further parameters, allowing investigations for product design and evaluation.},

keywords = {Ergonomy, Exoskeleton Design and Control, Human Performance Augmentation, Neuromusculoskeletal Modelling, Physical Human Robot Interaction},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{10.3389/fncir.2021.750176,

title = {Effects of Simulated Microgravity and Hypergravity Conditions on Arm Movements in Normogravity},

author = {Marko Jam\v{s}ek and Tja\v{s}a Kunavar and Gunnar Blohm and Daichi Nozaki and Charalambos Papaxanthis and Olivier White and Jan Babi\v{c}},

url = {https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fncir.2021.750176},

doi = {10.3389/fncir.2021.750176},

issn = {1662-5110},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

urldate = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Frontiers in Neural Circuits},

volume = {15},

pages = {150},

abstract = {The human sensorimotor control has evolved in the Earth's environment where all movement is influenced by the gravitational force. Changes in this environmental force can severely impact the performance of arm movements which can be detrimental in completing certain tasks such as piloting or controlling complex vehicles. For this reason, subjects that are required to perform such tasks undergo extensive training procedures in order to minimize the chances of failure. We investigated whether local gravity simulation of altered gravitational conditions on the arm would lead to changes in kinematic parameters comparable to the full-body experience of microgravity and hypergravity onboard a parabolic flight. To see if this would be a feasible approach for on-ground training of arm reaching movements in altered gravity conditions we developed a robotic device that was able to apply forces at the wrist in order to simulate micro- or hypergravity conditions for the arm while subjects performed pointing movements on a touch screen. We analyzed and compared the results of several kinematic parameters along with muscle activity using this system with data of the same subjects being fully exposed to microgravity and hypergravity conditions on a parabolic flight. Both in our simulation and in-flight, we observed a significant increase in movement durations in microgravity conditions and increased velocities in hypergravity for upward movements. Additionally, we noted a reduced accuracy of pointing both in-flight and in our simulation. These promising results suggest, that locally simulated altered gravity can elicit similar changes in some movement characteristics for arm reaching movements. This could potentially be exploited as a means of developing devices such as exoskeletons to aid in training individuals prior to undertaking tasks in changed gravitational conditions.},

keywords = {Exoskeleton Design and Control, Human Motor Control, Human Performance Augmentation, Sensorimotor Learning},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Trost2021,

title = {A system to measure the human body asymmetries using accelerometers},

author = {Andrej Tro\v{s}t and Marko Jam\v{s}ek and Nejc \v{S}arabon and Jan Babi\v{c}},

url = {https://ev.fe.uni-lj.si/5-2021/Trost.pdf},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

urldate = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Elektrotehniski Vestnik/Electrotechnical Review},

volume = {88},

number = {5},

pages = {267--272},

abstract = {In sports, acute and chronic injuries of athletes are common despite the growing knowledge and interest in the preventive activity in the sports practice. One of the main causes of injuries in athletes are their body asymmetries, which can only be dealt with if properly quantified. Despite the availability of several measuring systems, the majority of them do not allow segmental measurements and those that do are not portable. To solve the issue, a portable measuring system to measure the body asymmetries of the lower part of the human body was designed and manufactured. It measures and stores the data acquired by six accelerometers attached at the foot, tibia and pelvis of the human both legs. The system is compact, lightweight, portable and allowing a local data storage on the measuring device itself and triggering external signal to start the data acquisition. The system is driven by a sophisticated microcontroller that ensures data sampling at a high sampling rate. Results of a preliminary experimental system evaluation and validation are positive and encouraging for its further development and enhancement.},

keywords = {Exoskeleton Design and Control, Sport},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Jamsek2020,

title = {Gaussian Mixture Models for Control of Quasi-Passive Spinal Exoskeletons},

author = {Marko Jam\v{s}ek and Tadej Petri\v{c} and Jan Babi\v{c}},

url = {https://www.mdpi.com/711802 https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/20/9/2705},

doi = {10.3390/s20092705},

issn = {1424-8220},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-05-01},

urldate = {2020-05-01},

journal = {Sensors},

volume = {20},

number = {9},

pages = {2705},

publisher = {Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute},

abstract = {Research and development of active and passive exoskeletons for preventing work related injuries has steadily increased in the last decade. Recently, new types of quasi-passive designs have been emerging. These exoskeletons use passive viscoelastic elements, such as springs and dampers, to provide support to the user, while using small actuators only to change the level of support or to disengage the passive elements. Control of such devices is still largely unexplored, especially the algorithms that predict the movement of the user, to take maximum advantage of the passive viscoelastic elements. To address this issue, we developed a new control scheme consisting of Gaussian mixture models (GMM) in combination with a state machine controller to identify and classify the movement of the user as early as possible and thus provide a timely control output for the quasi-passive spinal exoskeleton. In a leave-one-out cross-validation procedure, the overall accuracy for providing support to the user was 86 . 72 ± 0 . 86 % (mean ± s.d.) with a sensitivity and specificity of 97 . 46 ± 2 . 09 % and 83 . 15 ± 0 . 85 % respectively. The results of this study indicate that our approach is a promising tool for the control of quasi-passive spinal exoskeletons.},

keywords = {Exoskeleton Design and Control, Physical Human Robot Interaction},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Koopman2020,

title = {Biomechanical evaluation of a new passive back support exoskeleton},

author = {Axel S Koopman and Matthias Naf and Saskia J Baltrusch and Idsart Kingma and Carlos Rodriguez-Guerrero and Jan Babi\v{c} and Michiel P de Looze and Jaap H van Dieen},

url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0021929020302153},

doi = {10.1016/j.jbiomech.2020.109795},

issn = {00219290},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-05-01},

urldate = {2020-05-01},

journal = {Journal of Biomechanics},

volume = {105},

pages = {109795},

abstract = {The number one cause of disability in the world is low-back pain, with mechanical loading as one of the major risk factors. To reduce mechanical loading, exoskeletons have been introduced in the workplace. Substantial reductions in back muscle activity were found when using the exoskeleton during static bending and manual materials handling. However, most exoskeletons only have one joint at hip level, resulting in loss of range of motion and shifting of the exoskeleton relative to the body. To address these issues, a new exoskeleton design has been developed and tested. The present study investigated the effect of the SPEXOR passive exoskeleton on compression forces, moments, muscle activity and kinematics during static bending at six hand heights and during lifting of a box of 10 kg from around ankle height using three techniques: Free, Squat and Stoop. For static bending, the exoskeleton reduced the compression force by 13\textendash21 % depending on bending angle. Another effect of the exoskeleton was that participants substantially reduced lumbar flexion. While lifting, the exoskeleton reduced the peak compression force, on average, by 14 %. Lifting technique did not modify the effect of the exoskeleton such that the reduction in compression force was similar. In conclusion, substantial reductions in compression forces were found as a result of the support generated by the exoskeleton and changes in behavior when wearing the exoskeleton. For static bending, lumbar flexion was reduced with the exoskeleton, indicating reduced passive tissue strain. In addition, the reduced peak compression force could reduce the risk of compression induced tissue failure during lifting.},

keywords = {Ergonomy, Exoskeleton Design and Control, Human Performance Augmentation, Neuromusculoskeletal Modelling},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Ugurlu2020,

title = {Active Compliance Control Reduces Upper Body Effort in Exoskeleton-Supported Walking},

author = {Barkan Ugurlu and Hironori Oshima and Emre Sariyildiz and Tatsuo Narikiyo and Jan Babi\v{c}},

url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8960446/},

doi = {10.1109/THMS.2019.2961969},

issn = {2168-2291},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-04-01},

journal = {IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems},

volume = {50},

number = {2},

pages = {144--153},

abstract = {This article presents a locomotion controller for lower limb exoskeletons so as to enable the combined robot and user system to exhibit compliant walking characteristics when interacting with the environment. This is of critical importance to reduce the excessive ground reaction forces during the walking task execution with the aim of improved environmental interaction capabilities. In robot-aided walking support for paraplegics, the user has to actively use his/her upper limbs via crutches to ensure overall balance. By virtue of this requisite, several issues may particularly arise during touchdown instants, e.g., upper body orientation fluctuates, shoulder joints are subject to excessive loading, and arms may need to exert extra forces to counterbalance these effects. In order to reduce the upper body effort via compliant locomotion, the controller is designed to manage the force/position tradeoff by using an admittance controller in each joint. For proof of concept, a series of exoskeleton-aided walking experiments were conducted with the participation of nine healthy volunteers, four of whom additionally walked on an irregular surface for further performance evaluation. The results suggest that the proposed locomotion controller is advantageous over conventional high-gain position tracking in decreasing undesired oscillatory torso motion and total arm force, adequately reducing the required upper body effort.},

keywords = {Compliance and Impedance Control, Exoskeleton Design and Control, Physical Human Robot Interaction, Postural Balance},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Rodriguez-Guerrero2020,

title = {Wearable Robots: Taking a Leap From the Lab to the Real World [From the Guest Editors]},

author = {Carlos Rodriguez-Guerrero and Jan Babi\v{c} and Domen Novak},

url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9040485/},

doi = {10.1109/MRA.2020.2967004},

issn = {1070-9932},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-03-01},

journal = {IEEE Robotics \& Automation Magazine},

volume = {27},

number = {1},

pages = {20--21},

abstract = {The articles present a mix of mechanical design, control algorithms, and human-subject evaluations, thus providing insights into all aspects of wearable robotics for a varied engineering audience.},

keywords = {Exoskeleton Design and Control, Physical Human Robot Interaction},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Baltrusch2020,

title = {SPEXOR passive spinal exoskeleton decreases metabolic cost during symmetric repetitive lifting},

author = {Saskia J Baltrusch and Jaap H van Dieen and Axel S Koopman and Matthias Naf and Carlos Rodriguez-Guerrero and Jan Babi\v{c} and Han Houdijk},

url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00421-019-04284-6},

doi = {10.1007/s00421-019-04284-6},

issn = {1439-6319},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-02-01},

journal = {European Journal of Applied Physiology},

volume = {120},

number = {2},

pages = {401--412},

abstract = {Besides mechanical loading of the back, physiological strain is an important risk factor for low-back pain. Recently a passive exoskeleton (SPEXOR) has been developed to reduce loading on the low back. We aimed to assess the effect of this device on metabolic cost of repetitive lifting. To explain potential effects, we assessed kinematics, mechanical joint work, and back muscle activity. We recruited ten male employees, working in the luggage handling department of an airline company and having ample experience with lifting tasks at work. Metabolic cost, kinematics, mechanical joint work and muscle activity were measured during a 5-min repetitive lifting task. Participants had to lift and lower a box of 10 kg from ankle height with and without the exoskeleton. Metabolic cost was significantly reduced by 18 % when wearing the exoskeleton. Kinematics did not change significantly, while muscle activity decreased by up to 16 %. The exoskeleton took over 18\textendash25 % of joint work at the hip and L5S1 joints. However, due to large variation in individual responses, we did not find a significant reduction of joint work around the individual joints. Wearing the SPEXOR exoskeleton decreased metabolic cost and might, therefore, reduce fatigue development and contribute to prevention of low-back pain during repetitive lifting tasks. Reduced metabolic cost can be explained by the exoskeleton substituting part of muscle work at the hip and L5S1 joints and consequently decreasing required back muscle activity.},

keywords = {Ergonomy, Exoskeleton Design and Control, Physical Human Robot Interaction},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Maurice2020b,

title = {Objective and Subjective Effects of a Passive Exoskeleton on Overhead Work},

author = {Pauline Maurice and Jernej \v{C}amernik and Da\v{s}a Gorjan and Benjamin Schirrmeister and Jonas Bornmann and Luca Tagliapietra and Claudia Latella and Daniele Pucci and Lars Fritzsche and Serena Ivaldi and Jan Babi\v{c}},

url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8856265/},

doi = {10.1109/TNSRE.2019.2945368},

issn = {1534-4320},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering},

volume = {28},

number = {1},

pages = {152--164},

address = {Nancy},

abstract = {Overhead work is a frequent cause of shoulder work-related musculoskeletal disorders. Exoskeletons offering arm support have the potential to reduce shoulder strain, without requiring large scale reorganization of the workspace. Assessment of such systems however requires to take multiple factors into consideration. This paper presents a thorough in-lab assessment of PAEXO, a novel passive exoskeleton for arm support during overhead work. A list of evaluation criteria and associated performance metrics is proposed to cover both objective and subjective effects of the exoskeleton, on the user and on the task being performed. These metrics are measured during a lab study, where 12 participants perform an overhead pointing task with and without the exoskeleton, while their physical, physiological and psychological states are monitored. Results show that using PAEXO reduces shoulder physical strain as well as global physiological strain, without increasing low back strain nor degrading balance. These positive effects are achieved without degrading task performance. Importantly, participants' opinions of PAEXO are positive, in agreement with the objective measures. Thus, PAEXO seems a promising solution to help prevent shoulder injuries and diseases among overhead workers, without negatively impacting productivity.},

keywords = {Ergonomy, Exoskeleton Design and Control, Kinematics, Physical Human Robot Interaction, Postural Balance},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Maurice2019a,

title = {Evaluation of PAEXO, a novel passive exoskeleton for overhead work},

author = {Pauline Maurice and Jernej \v{C}amernik and Da\v{s}a Gorjan and Benjamin Schirrmeister and Jonas Bornmann and Luca Tagliapietra and Claudia Latella and Danielle Pucci and Lars Fritzsche and Serena Ivaldi and Jan Babi\v{c}},

url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/10255842.2020.1714977 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10255842.2020.1714977},

doi = {10.1080/10255842.2020.1714977},

issn = {1025-5842},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-10-01},

journal = {Computer Methods in Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering},

volume = {22},

number = {sup1},

pages = {S448--S450},

publisher = {Taylor \& Francis},

abstract = {Assessment of physical, physiological, and psycho-logical aspects in the lab study suggest that PAEXO is a promising solution to reduce shoulder WMSDs among overhead workers. An inverse dynamics ana- lysis is being conducted to estimate joint torques from whole-body kinematics and ground reaction force to complement the present assessment. Data collected during field-testing with industrial workers are currently analyzed to evaluate the impact of PAEXO on real end-users.},

keywords = {Ergonomy, Exoskeleton Design and Control, Physical Human Robot Interaction},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Babic2019,

title = {SPEXOR: Design and development of passive spinal exoskeletal robot for low back pain prevention and vocational reintegration},

author = {Jan Babi\v{c} and Tadej Petri\v{c} and Katja Mombaur and Idsart Kingma and Jonas Bornmann and Jose Gonzalez-Vargas and Saskia Baltrusch and Nejc \v{S}arabon and Han Houdijk},

url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s42452-019-0266-1},

doi = {10.1007/s42452-019-0266-1},

issn = {2523-3963},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-03-01},

urldate = {2019-03-01},

journal = {SN Applied Sciences},

volume = {1},

number = {3},

pages = {262},

abstract = {The objective of SPEXOR project is to address low back pain as one of the most appealing health problems of the modern society by creating a body of scientific and technological knowledge in the multidisciplinary areas of biomechanics, robotics, and computer science that will lead to technologies for low back pain prevention. In this paper we provide an overview of the current state-of-art of SPEXOR that the consortium achieved in the first twenty-four months of the project. After introducing the rationale, we describe the biomechanics of low back pain intervention, development of the musculoskeletal stress monitoring for assessment of neuromuscular trunk functions, modeling and optimization of the interaction of spinal exoskeleton with the human body, electromechanical design and development of the passive spinal exoskeleton and its control, and finally the end-user evaluation of the functional effects, usability and satisfaction.},

keywords = {Exoskeleton Design and Control, Robot Design},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Peternel2016b,

title = {Adaptive Control of Exoskeleton Robots for Periodic Assistive Behaviours Based on EMG Feedback Minimisation},

author = {Luka Peternel and Tomoyuki Noda and Tadej Petri\v{c} and Ale\v{s} Ude and Jun Morimoto and Jan Babi\v{c}},

editor = {Dingguo Zhang},

url = {http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148942},

doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0148942},

issn = {1932-6203},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-02-01},

journal = {PLOS ONE},

volume = {11},

number = {2},

pages = {e0148942},

abstract = {In this paper we propose an exoskeleton control method for adaptive learning of assistive joint torque profiles in periodic tasks. We use human muscle activity as feedback to adapt the assistive joint torque behaviour in a way that the muscle activity is minimised. The user can then relax while the exoskeleton takes over the task execution. If the task is altered and the existing assistive behaviour becomes inadequate, the exoskeleton gradually adapts to the new task execution so that the increased muscle activity caused by the new desired task can be reduced. The advantage of the proposed method is that it does not require biomechanical or dynamical models. Our proposed learning system uses Dynamical Movement Primitives (DMPs) as a trajectory generator and parameters of DMPs are modulated using Locally Weighted Regression. Then, the learning system is combined with adaptive oscillators that determine the phase and frequency of motion according to measured Electromyography (EMG) signals. We tested the method with real robot experiments where subjects wearing an elbow exoskeleton had to move an object of an unknown mass according to a predefined reference motion. We further evaluated the proposed approach on a whole-arm exoskeleton to show that it is able to adaptively derive assistive torques even for multiple-joint motion.},

keywords = {Exoskeleton Design and Control, Human Performance Augmentation, Muscle Mechanics},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Petric2013a,

title = {Control approaches for robotic knee exoskeleton and their effects on human motion},

author = {Tadej Petri\v{c} and Andrej Gams and Tadej Debevec and Leon \v{Z}lajpah and Jan Babi\v{c}},

url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01691864.2013.804164},

doi = {10.1080/01691864.2013.804164},

issn = {0169-1864},

year  = {2013},

date = {2013-09-01},

journal = {Advanced Robotics},

volume = {27},

number = {13},

pages = {993--1002},

publisher = {Taylor \& Francis},

abstract = {In this paper we compare three noninvasive control methods for a robotic knee exoskeleton and asses their kinematic influences on the repetitive squatting motions of able-bodied human subjects. The motion of the subjects wearing the knee exoskeleton was also compared to the motion of the subjects performing the same task without using the assistance of the knee exoskeleton. We chose the squatting motion because it approximates common movements with high metabolic cost, such as standing up from a chair and ascending or descending the stairs. Beside the two classical robotic control approaches, i.e. the position control and the gravity compensation, we propose a method that is based on a single adaptive frequency oscillator combined with an adaptive Fourier series in a feedback loop. The method can extract frequency and phase of an arbitrary periodic signal in real-time. This method is particularly appropriate for controlling novel robotic assisting devices since it does not require complex signal sensing or user calibration. The results show that the total knee torque was increased while using the exoskeleton device compared to the squatting without the assistance of the exoskeleton device. In effect, there were significant kinematic adaptations observed when the exoskleton device assisted the motion of the subjects. However, no significant kinematic differences were found between different control methods. We conclude that an assistive device can augment the abilities of the able-bodied humans in the targeted joints (i.e. the joints provided with additional mechanical power) but, on the other hand, significantly alters whole body kinematics. In this paper we compare three noninvasive control methods for a robotic knee exoskeleton and asses their kinematic influences on the repetitive squatting motions of able-bodied human subjects. The motion of the subjects wearing the knee exoskeleton was also compared to the motion of the subjects performing the same task without using the assistance of the knee exoskeleton. We chose the squatting motion because it approximates common movements with high metabolic cost, such as standing up from a chair and ascending or descending the stairs. Beside the two classical robotic control approaches, i.e. the position control and the gravity compensation, we propose a method that is based on a single adaptive frequency oscillator combined with an adaptive Fourier series in a feedback loop. The method can extract frequency and phase of an arbitrary periodic signal in real-time. This method is particularly appropriate for controlling novel robotic assisting devices since it does not require complex signal sensing or user calibration. The results show that the total knee torque was increased while using the exoskeleton device compared to the squatting without the assistance of the exoskeleton device. In effect, there were significant kinematic adaptations observed when the exoskleton device assisted the motion of the subjects. However, no significant kinematic differences were found between different control methods. We conclude that an assistive device can augment the abilities of the able-bodied humans in the targeted joints (i.e. the joints provided with additional mechanical power) but, on the other hand, significantly alters whole body kinematics.},

keywords = {Compliance and Impedance Control, Exoskeleton Design and Control, Human Performance Augmentation},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Gams2013,

title = {Effects of Robotic Knee Exoskeleton on Human Energy Expenditure},

author = {Andrej Gams and Tadej Petri\v{c} and Tadej Debevec and Jan Babi\v{c}},

url = {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6414598/},

doi = {10.1109/TBME.2013.2240682},

issn = {0018-9294},

year  = {2013},

date = {2013-06-01},

journal = {IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering},

volume = {60},

number = {6},

pages = {1636--1644},

abstract = {A number of studies discuss the design and control of various exoskeleton mechanisms, yet relatively few address the effect on the energy expenditure of the user. In this paper, we discuss the effect of a performance augmenting exoskeleton on the metabolic cost of an able-bodied user/pilot during periodic squatting. We investigated whether an exoskeleton device will significantly reduce the metabolic cost and what is the influence of the chosen device control strategy. By measuring oxygen consumption, minute ventilation, heart rate, blood oxygenation, and muscle EMG during 5-min squatting series, at one squat every 2 s, we show the effects of using a prototype robotic knee exoskeleton under three different noninvasive control approaches: gravity compensation approach, position-based approach, and a novel oscillator-based approach. The latter proposes a novel control that ensures synchronization of the device and the user. Statistically significant decrease in physiological responses can be observed when using the robotic knee exoskeleton under gravity compensation and oscillator-based control. On the other hand, the effects of position-based control were not significant in all parameters although all approaches significantly reduced the energy expenditure during squatting.},

keywords = {Exoskeleton Design and Control, Human Performance Augmentation, Neuromusculoskeletal Modelling},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}